Behavioral management of children

Temper Tantrums: Guidelines for Parents

By Robert G. Harrington, PhD
University of Kansas

Every teacher of young children and every new parent can expect to witness some temper tantrums in children from age 1–4 years. On average, temper tantrums are equally common in boys and girls, and more than half of young children will have one or more per week.

At home, there are predictable situations that can be expected to trigger temper tantrums, such as bedtime, suppertime, getting up, getting dressed, bath time, watching TV, parent talking on the phone, visitors at the house, family visiting another house, car rides, public places, family activities involving siblings, interactions with peers, and playtime. Other settings include transitions between activities, on the school bus, getting ready to work, interactions with other children, directives from the teacher, group activities, answering questions in class, individual seat work, and the playground.

Characteristics of Temper Tantrums

All young children from time to time will whine, complain, resist, cling, argue, hit, shout, run, and defy their teachers and parents. Temper tantrums, although normal, can become upsetting to teachers and parents because they are embarrassing, challenging, and difficult to manage. On the other hand, temper tantrums can become special problems when they occur with greater frequency, intensity, and duration than is typical for the age of the child.

There are nine different types of temperaments in children:

• Hyperactive temperament predisposes the child to respond with fine- or gross-motor activity.
• Distractible temperament predisposes the child to pay more attention to his or her surroundings than to the caregiver.
• High intensity level temperament moves the child to yell, scream, or hit hard when feeling threatened.
• Irregular temperament moves the child to escape the source of stress by needing to eat, drink, sleep, or use the bathroom at irregular times when he or she does not really have the need.
• Negative persistent temperament is seen when the child seems stuck in his or her whining and complaining.
• Low sensory threshold temperament is evident when the child complains about tight clothes and people staring and refuses to be touched by others.
• Initial withdrawal temperament is found when children get clingy, shy, and unresponsive in new situations and around unfamiliar people.
• Poor adaptability temperament shows itself when children resist, shut down, and become passive-aggressive when asked to change activities.
• Negative mood temperament is found when children appear lethargic, sad, and lack the energy to perform a task.

Developmental Issues

At about age 1 1/2 some children will start throwing temper tantrums. These bouts of temper tantrums can last until approximately age 4. Some call this stage the terrible twos and others call it first adolescence because the struggle for independence is similar to what is seen during adolescence. Regardless of what the stage is called, there is a normal developmental course for temper tantrums.

One-and-a-half through 2 years old. Children during this stage will test the limits. They want to see how far they can go before a parent or teacher stops their behavior. At age 2 children are very egocentric and cannot see another person’s point of view. They want independence and self-control to explore their environment. When children cannot reach a goal, they show frustration by crying, arguing, yelling, or hitting. When children’s need for independence collides with the parents’ and teachers’ needs for safety and conformity, the conditions are perfect for a power struggle and a temper tantrum. The temper tantrum is designed to get the teacher or parent to desist in their demands or give them whatever they want. Many times children stop the temper tantrum only when they get what is desired. What is most upsetting to caregivers is that it is virtually impossible to reason with children who are having a temper tantrum, and arguing and cajoling in response to a temper tantrum only escalates the problem.

Three-year-olds. By age 3 many children are less impulsive and can use language to express their needs. Tantrums at this age are often less frequent and less severe. Nevertheless, some preschoolers have learned that a temper tantrum is a good way to get what they want.

Four-year-olds. Most children have the necessary motor and physical skills to meet many of their own needs without relying so much on an adult. At this age, children also have better language that allows them to express their anger and to problem-solve and compromise. Despite these improved skills, even kindergartenage and school-age children can still have temper tantrums when they are faced with demanding academic tasks and new interpersonal situations in school.

Prevention for Parents and Teachers

It is much easier to prevent temper tantrums than it is to manage them once they have erupted. Here are some tips for preventing temper tantrums and some things you can say:

• Reward children for positive attention rather than negative attention. During situations when they are prone to temper tantrums, catch them when they are being good and say such things as, “Nice job sharing with your friend.”
• Do not ask children to do something when they must do what you ask. Do not ask, “Would you like to eat now?” Say, “It’s suppertime now.”
• Give children control over little things whenever possible by giving choices. A little bit of power given to the child can stave off the big power struggles later. “Which do you want to do first, brush your teeth or put on your pajamas?”
• Keep off-limit objects out of sight and therefore out of mind. In an art activity keep the scissors out of reach if children are not ready to use them safely.
• Distract children by redirection to another activity when they tantrum over something they should not do or cannot have. Say, “Let’s read a book together.”
• Change environments, thus removing the child from the source of the temper tantrum. Say, “Let’s go for a walk.”
• Choose your battles. Teach children how to make a request without a temper tantrum and then honor the request. Say, “Try asking for that toy nicely and I’ll get it for you.”
• Make sure that children are well rested and fed in situations in which a temper tantrum is a likely possibility. Say, “Supper is almost ready, here’s a cracker for now.”
• Avoid boredom. Say, “You have been working for a long time. Let’s take a break and do something fun.”
• Create a safe environment that children can explore without getting into trouble. Childproof your home or classroom so children can explore safely.
• Increase your tolerance level. Are you available to meet the child’s reasonable needs? Evaluate how many times you say, “No.” Avoid fighting over minor things.
• Establish routines and traditions that add structure. For teachers, start class with a sharing time and opportunity for interaction.
• Signal children before you reach the end of an activity so that they can get prepared for the transition. Say, “When the timer goes off 5 minutes from now it will be time to turn off the TV and go to bed.”
• When visiting new places or unfamiliar people explain to the child beforehand what to expect. Say, “Stay with your assigned buddy in the museum.”
• Provide pre-academic, behavioral, and social challenges that are at the child’s developmental level so that the child does not become frustrated.
• Keep a sense of humor to divert the child’s attention and surprise the child out of the tantrum.

Intervention for Parents and Teachers

There are a number of ways to handle a temper tantrum. Strategies include the following:

• Remain calm and do not argue with the child. Before you manage the child, you must manage your own behavior. Spanking or yelling at the child will make the tantrum worse.
• Think before you act. Count to 10 and then think about the source of the child’s frustration, this child’s characteristic temperamental response to stress (hyperactivity, distractibility, moodiness), and the predictable steps in the escalation of the temper tantrum.
• Try to intervene before the child is out of control. Get down at the child’s eye level and say, “You are starting to get revved up, slow down.” Now you have several choices of intervention.
• You can positively distract the child by getting the child focused on something else that is an acceptable activity. For example, you might remove the unsafe item and replace with an age-appropriate toy.
• You can place the child in time away. Time away is a quiet place where the child goes to calm down, think about what he or she needs to do, and, with your help, make a plan to change the behavior.
• You can ignore the tantrum if it is being thrown to get your attention. Once the child calms down, give the attention that is desired.
• Hold the child who is out of control and is going to hurt himself or herself or someone else. Let the child know that you will let him or her go as soon as he or she calms down. Reassure the child that everything will be all right, and help the child calm down. Parents may need to hug their child who is crying, and say they will always love him or her no matter what, but that the behavior has to change. This reassurance can be comforting for a child who may be afraid because he or she lost control.
• If the child has escalated the tantrum to the point where you are not able to intervene in the ways described above, then you may need to direct the child to time-out (see “Resources”). If you are in a public place, carry your child outside or to the car. Tell the child that you will go home unless he or she calms down. In school warn the child up to three times that it is necessary to calm down and give a reminder of the rule. If the child refuses to comply, then place him or her in time-out for no more than 1 minute for each year of age.
• Talk with the child after the child has calmed down. When the child stops crying, talk about the frustration the child has experienced. Try to help solve the problem if possible. For the future, teach the child new skills to help avoid temper tantrums such as how to ask appropriately for help and how to signal a parent or teacher that the he or she knows they need to go to “time away” to “stop, think, and make a plan.” Teach the child how to try a more successful way of interacting with a peer or sibling, how to express his or her feelings with words and recognize the feelings of others without hitting and screaming.

Post-Tantrum Management

• Never, under any circumstances, give in to a tantrum. That response will only increase the number and frequency of the tantrums.
• Explain to the child that there are better ways to get what he or she wants.
• Do not reward the child after a tantrum for calming down. Some children will learn that a temper tantrum is a good way to get a treat later.
• Never let the temper tantrum interfere with your otherwise positive relationship with the child.
• Teach the child that anger is a feeling that we all have and then teach her ways to express anger constructively.

When to Get Help

For parents. If, despite the use of these interventions, the tantrums are increasing in frequency, intensity, or duration, consult your child’s doctor. You should also consult your child’s doctor if the child is self-injurious, hurtful to others, depressed, showing signs of low self-esteem, or is overly dependent on a parent or teacher for support. Your pediatrician or family physician can check for hearing or vision problems, chronic illness, or conditions such as Asperger’s syndrome, language delays, or a learning disability, which may be contributing to your child’s increasing temper tantrums. Your physician can also direct you to a mental health professional who can provide assistance for you and your child.

Resources

Agassi, M. (2000). Hands are not for hitting. Minneapolis: Free Spirit. ISBN: 1575421127.

Greene, R. W. (1998). The explosive child. New York: Harper Collins. ASIN: 0060175346.

MacKenzie, R. (2001). Setting limits with your strongwilled child. New York: Prima. ISBN: 0761521364.

Nelson, J. (1999). Positive time-out and over 50 ways to avoid power struggles in the home and the classroom. New York: Prima. ISBN: 0761521755.

Reichenberg-Ullman, J., & Ullman, R. (1999). Rage-free kids. New York: Prima. ASIN: 0761520279.

Website

Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies— www.behavior.org (See Effective Parenting)

Robert G. Harrington, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Psychology and Research in Education at the University of Kansas and has trained teachers and parents in behavior management of children and adolescents.

© 2004 National Association of School Psychologists, 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402, Bethesda, MD 20814—(301) 657-0270. Reprinted from Helping Children at Home and School II: Handouts for Families and Educators (NASP, 2004), available from the NASP Bookstore.

referred from : http://www.nasponline.org/resources/behavior/tantrums_ho.aspx

Pre writing skill

Almost every preschool website has its own version of "tracing worksheets". Almost every dollar store and superstore has for sale a "letter workbook". Most moms have the idea that this is the method kids should use to learn to write their letters and numbers. But, if you have ever tried this approach, you know it can be frustrating for everyone involved. Tracing worksheets have their place and can be great learning tool for some children, I have just found a process that has worked better for our kiddos.
While working with our occupational therapist, I have learned a lot about teaching our kiddos how to write their letters and numbers. I have learned that it is all about a process. Each level is a building block for the next level. It isn't until after they have learned the proper formation of the letters and numbers, that tracing worksheets are introduced. And even then, I had to discover the "perfect" tracing worksheets.Beginning writers need larger letters and thicker lines to learn how to correctly form letters. The famous tracing worksheets do not offer this. Using start and stop dots along with spacial boxes, a child is guided as they learn. Using this sequence along with the Letter Formation Chants and Number Rhymes will help your child succeed!

Step #1 - Holding a Pencil Correctly

The first step to nice handwriting is a correctly pencil hold. To help teach this, place a kleenex or small sponge in the child's palm. Have the child hold the kleenex or sponge with their ring and little finger. Then, using a "fat" pencil, help the child hold the pencil with their thumb and first two fingers. Having to hold the kleenex as well as the pencil will help the child keep the correct form.
Helping the child hold a pencil correctly begins half way through the 2 Year Curriculum. At this point, some children will not be ready for this activity and that is okay. Be careful not to frustrate the child while doing this activity. Continue to work on fine motor activities to increase the child's fine motor control.

Step #2 - Pre-Writing

If your child can not follow a straight, diagonal, or circular line, they will not be able to form letters. Using a yellow marker or highlighter, draw 3" vertical lines. Move to horizontal, diagonal, and circles as your child is ready. Add a green dot for "go" and a red dot for "stop". Help them place their pencil on the green dot, draw along the yellow, and stop at the red dot.

    

The ABCJLM Pre-Writing Worksheets are also available to print.
Straight Lines Worksheet
Horizontal Lines Worksheet
Diagonal Lines Worksheet
Drawing Lines Review Worksheet
Circular Lines Worksheet

Pre-Writing Worksheets can also be helpful. These worksheets teach a child the concept of tracing lines. I would suggest that you trace the lines with a thick yellow marker (to make them wider) along with adding the green and red dots at the beginning and the end.
Lil Bunny Hops
Kidzone
Preschool Learner Pre-Writing Worksheets

Step #3 - 3" Letters

Once the child has mastered the basic lines and circles, you can move to Step #2. Using a thick yellow marker or highlighter, draw 3" tall letters or numbers across a horizontal paper. Start with just one character on a page at a time. Add a green dot at the starting point of each character and a red dot at the finishing point. Most letters have more than one starting and ending point. Just draw the first starting and ending point. Once the formation is mastered, take away the yellow line, red dot and then finally the green dot. Progress to smaller and thinner lines. Be sure to say the Letter Formation Chants and Number Rhymes as you form the characters. These will help the child learn and remember the correct formation.

The 3 Year Curriculum focuses on tracing the letters with the index finger until the second half of the curriculum. At that point, the child slowly begins to write their name using capital letters only. Follow the same process as stated here using the letters in their name.

Step #4 - Large Tracing Lines

After the child is able to correctly form the 3" characters with the green starting dot only, place the characters on the classic tracing lines. I color-coded the lines to help in the letter formation. The middle line is green since many lower case letters start on the middle line and end on the bottom (red) line. The top line is blue. Draw the characters in yellow with the added the green and red dots for each letter and number. For this step, take away the yellow line first, red dot second, and finally the green dot when the child is ready.
Start with the wider lines and progress to the small lines.
Blank Tracing Line Worksheet - Wide
1" Blank Tracing Line Worksheet - Medium
3/4" Blank Tracing Line Worksheet - Narrow
Now you are ready to work on keeping the letter uniform. For this I have created tracing worksheets.

Step #5 - ABCJLM Tracing Worksheets

All of the ABCJLM worksheets are created in four ways to help children improve fine motor skills and handwriting: 
1. Letters or Numbers - These are the basic worksheets with a place to copy over the letter or number and then write it.
2. With Boxes - Beside each letter or number is a box that gives the child a specific space to write the letter.
3. With Green Dots - The green dot shows the child where to begin the letter.
4. With Green & Red Dots - Inside each box is a green and red dot. The green dot shows the child where to lay their pencil while the red dot means stop. Best printed in color but can be printed with black dots if the colors are no longer needed.Worksheets:
ABC Worksheets - These worksheets include both uppercase and lowercase letters.
Number Worksheets - Numbers 1-20
Letter & Number Progression - These worksheets group letters and numbers together to help the child see the connection between the formation of similar letters and numbers. These worksheets are the basis for the 4-Year Curriculum letter and number order.
Links:
Printable Worksheets - Links to free printable worksheets and sites that allow you to create your own handwriting worksheets
Downloadable Font - Download handwriting font to your computer. This allows you to make your own handwriting worksheets.
Ebook: Handwriting Ebooks Review to come soon!Misc:

Why do children play？

What Is Play?Although it is simple to compile a list of play activities, it is much more difficult to define play. Scales, et al., (1991) called play "that absorbing activity in which healthy young children participate with enthusiasm and abandon" (p. 15). Csikszentmihalyi (1981) described play as "a subset of life..., an arrangement in which one can practice behavior without dreading its consequences" (p. 14). Garvey (1977) gave a useful description of play for teachers when she defined play as an activity which is: 1) positively valued by the player; 2) self-motivated; 3) freely chosen; 4) engaging; and 5) which "has certain systematic relations to what is not play" (p. 5). These characteristics are important for teachers to remember because imposing adult values, requirements, or motivations on children's activities may change the very nature of play. According to Webster's Desk Dictionary of the English Language, the word play has 34 different meanings. In terms of young children and play, the following definitions from Webster's are useful: light, brisk, or changing movement (e.g., to pretend you're a butterfly) to act or imitate the part of a person or character (e.g., to play house) to employ a piece of equipment (e.g., to play blocks) exercise or activity for amusement or recreation (e.g., to play tag) fun or jest, as opposed to seriousness (e.g., to play peek-a-boo or sing a silly song) the action of a game (e.g., to play duck-duck-goose) Why Is Play Important? According to Fromberg and Gullo (1992), play enhances language development, social competence, creativity, imagination, and thinking skills. Frost (1992) concurred, stating that "play is the chief vehicle for the development of imagination and intelligence, language, social skills, and perceptual-motor abilities in infants and young children" (p. 48). Garvey (1977) states that play is most common during childhood when children's knowledge of self, comprehension of verbal and non-verbal communication, and understanding of the physical and social worlds are expanding dramatically. Fromberg (1990) claims that play is the "ultimate integrator of human experience" (p. 223). This means that when children play, they draw upon their past experiences-things they have done, seen others do, read about, or seen on television-and they use these experiences to build games, play scenarios, and engage in activities. Children use fine and gross motor skills in their play. They react to each other socially. They think about what they are doing or going to do. They use language to talk to each other or to themselves and they very often respond emotionally to the play activity. The integration of these different types of behaviors is key to the cognitive development of young children. According to Rogers and Sawyer (1988), "until at least the age of nine, children's cognitive structures function best in this unified mode" (p. 58). Because children's play draws upon all of these behaviors, it is a very effective vehicle for learning. Play and Cognitive Development The relationship between play and cognitive development is described differently in the two theories of cognitive development which dominate early childhood education-Piaget's and Vygotsky's. Piaget (1962) defined play as assimilation, or the child's efforts to make environmental stimuli match his or her own concepts. Piagetian theory holds that play, in and of itself, does not necessarily result in the formation of new cognitive structures. Piaget claimed that play was just for pleasure, and while it allowed children to practice things they had previously learned, it did not necessarily result in the learning of new things. In other words, play reflects what the child has already learned but does necessarily teach the child anything new. In this view, play is seen as a "process reflective of emerging symbolic development, but contributing little to it" (Johnsen & Christie, 1986, p. 51). In contrast, Vygotskian theory states that play actually facilitates cognitive development. Children not only practice what they already know-they also learn new things. In discussing Vygotsky's theory, Vandenberg (1986) remarks that "play not so much reflects thought (as Piaget suggests) as it creates thought" (p. 21). Observations of children at play yield examples to support both Piagetian and Vygotskian theories of play. A child who puts on a raincoat and a firefighter's hat and rushes to rescue his teddy bear from the pretend flames in his play house is practicing what he has previously learned about fire fighters. This supports Piaget's theory. On the other hand, a child in the block center who announces to his teacher, "Look! When I put these two square blocks together, I get a rectangle!" has constructed new knowledge through her play. This supports Vygotsky's theory. Whether children are practicing what they have learned in other settings or are constructing new knowledge, it is clear that play has a valuable role in the early childhood classroom. Play-Indoors and Out Early childhood teachers have long recognized the value of play in programs for young children. Unfortunately, teachers often fail to take advantage of the opportunities play provides for observing children's development and learning. Through such observations teachers can learn about children's social interactions, cognitive and language abilities, motor skills, and emotional development. Frost (1992) recommends that observing children at play be a daily responsibility for early childhood professionals. Regular observations provide teachers with assessment information for identifying children with special needs, planning future play experiences, evaluating play materials, determining areas of strength and weakness for individual children, planning curriculum for individual children, reporting to parents, and checking on a child's on-going progress. The increased use of authentic assessment strategies is making observations of children's play more commonplace in early childhood classrooms. Hymes (1981) recommends that children have two classrooms—one indoors and one outdoors. The outdoor play environment should be used as an extension of the indoor classroom. It should be a learning environment as carefully planned as the indoor activity centers and should encourage motor and social skills as well as help children refine existing cognitive structures and construct new ones. Used in this way, the outdoor play environment provides a basis for observational assessments in all areas of development. Fox (1993) researched the practicality of observing young children's cognitive development during outdoor play. Her observations of four- and five-year-old children during outdoor play found examples of addition and subtraction, shape identification, patterning, one-to-one correspondence, number sense, sequencing of events, use of ordinal numbers, knowledge of prepositions, and identification of final and initial consonants. Fox's outdoor observations also found multiple examples of problem-solving, creative thinking, social competence, language use, and gross and fine motor skills. Although outdoor observations do not replace classroom assessment, they can provide valuable information for teachers of young children. As Fox stated, "These observations can be performed unobtrusively, without intruding upon the children's activities and without placing children in a stressful testing situation" (p. 131). Parten's Five Types of Play Play for young children assumes many different forms. Mildred Parten (1932) was one of the early researchers studying children at play. She focused on the social interactions between children during play activities. Parten's categories of play are not hierarchical. Depending on the circumstances, children may engage in any of the different types of play. Parten does note, however, that in her research with two- to five-year-olds, "participation in the most social types of groups occurs most frequently among the older children" (p. 259). Onlooker behavior—Playing passively by watching or conversing with other children engaged in play activities. Solitary independent—Playing by oneself. Parallel—Playing, even in the middle of a group, while remaining engrossed in one's own activity. Children playing parallel to each other sometimes use each other's toys, but always maintain their independence. Associative—When children share materials and talk to each other, but do not coordinate play objectives or interests. Cooperative—When children organize themselves into roles with specific goals in mind (e.g., to assign the roles of doctor, nurse, and patient and play hospital). How Much Should Children Play? Indoors and outdoors, children need large blocks of time for play. According to Christie and Wardle (1992), short play periods may require children to abandon their group dramatizations or constructive play just when they begin to get involved. When this happens a number of times, children may give up on more sophisticated forms of play and settle for less advanced forms that can be completed in short periods of time. Shorter play periods reduce both the amount and the maturity of children's play, and many important benefits of play, such as persistence, negotiation, problem-solving, planning, and cooperation are lost. Large blocks of time (30 to 60 minutes, or longer) should be scheduled for indoor and outdoor play periods. Christie and Wardle remind teachers that extra play time does not result in children becoming bored. Instead, it prompts children to become involved in more complex, more productive play activities. The Teacher's Role The early childhood teacher is the facilitator of play in the classroom. The teacher facilitates play by providing appropriate indoor and outdoor play environments. Safety is, of course, the primary concern. Age and developmental levels must be carefully considered in the design and selection of materials. Guidelines for selecting safe and appropriate equipment for outdoor play environments are available through theU.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission's Handbook for Public Playground Safety and the Playground Safety Manual by Jambor and Palmer (1991). Similar guidelines are also available for indoor settings (Torelli & Durrett, 1996; Caples, 1996; Ard & Pitts, 1990). Once appropriate environments and materials are in place, regular safety checks and maintenance are needed to ensure that the equipment is sound and safe for continued play. Teachers also facilitate play by working with children to develop rules for safe indoor and outdoor play. Discussion about the appropriate use of materials, the safe number of participants on each piece of equipment, taking turns, sharing, and cleaning up provides the children with information to begin their play activities. These discussions need to be ongoing because some children may need frequent reminders about rules and because new situations may arise (e.g., new equipment). By providing play materials related to thematic instruction, early childhood teachers can establish links between the children's indoor and outdoor play and their program's curriculum. Thematic props for dramatic play can be placed in the dramatic play center or stored in prop boxes and taken outside to extend the dramatic play to a new setting. An art center in the outdoor play environment may encourage children to explore the possibilities of using leaves, twigs, pebbles, and sand in their three-dimensional art productions. Painting easels and water tables may also be moved outside periodically for children's use during outdoor play periods. Finally, a collection of books stored in a wagon to be taken outside during play time may offer some children a needed alternative to more active play. As facilitators of children's play, teachers should closely observe children during play periods not only for assessment purposes, as stated earlier, but also to facilitate appropriate social interactions and motor behaviors. It is important that children be the decision-makers during play, choosing what and where to play, choosing roles for each player, and choosing how play will proceed. Occasionally, however, some children will need adult assistance in joining a play group, modifying behavior, or negotiating a disagreement. Careful observation will help the teacher to decide when to offer assistance and what form that assistance should take. Conclusion Although play is a difficult concept to define, it is very easy to recognize. Children actively involved in play may be engaged in a variety of activities, independently, with a partner, or in a group. Because play is closely tied to the cognitive, socio-emotional, and motor development of young children, it is an important part of developmentally appropriate early childhood programs. Jill Englebright Fox, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of early childhood education at Virginia Commonwealth University. She taught kindergarten and first grade in the Texas public schools for eight years, and is currently an active member of the International Play Association-USA. Her research interests focus on play and aesthetic development in young children, and professional development schools. References Ard, L. & Pitts, M. (Eds.). (1990). Room to grow: How to create quality early childhood environments. Austin, TX: Texas Association for the Education of Young Children. Caples, S.E. (1996). Some guidelines for preschool design. Young Children, 51 (4), 14-21. Christie, J.F. & Wardle, F. (1992). How much time is needed for play?Young Children, 47 (93), 28-32. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1981). Some paradoxes in the definition of play. In Cheska, A.T. (Ed.). Play as context, (pp. 14-26). West Point, NY: Leisure Press. Fox, J.E. (1993). Assessing cognitive development by observing children's outdoor play. In M. Guddemi & T. Jambor, (Eds.). A right to play: Proceedings of the American Affiliate of the International Association for the Child's Right to Play, September 17-20, 1992, Denton, Texas, (pp. 128-131). Little Rock, AK: Southern Early Childhood Association. Fromberg, D.P. & Gullo, D.F. (1992). Perspectives on children. In L.R. Williams & D.P. Fromberg (Eds.), Encyclopedia of early childhood education, (pp. 191-194). New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. Fromberg, D.P. (1990). Play issues in early childhood education. In Seedfeldt, C. (Ed.), Continuing issues in early childhood education, (pp. 223-243). Columbus, OH: Merrill. Frost, J.L. (1992). Play and playscapes. Albany, NY: Delmar. G arvey, C. (1977). Play. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hymes, J.L. (1981).Teaching the child under six (3rd. ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill. Jambor, T. & Palmer, S.D. (1991). Playground safety manual. Birmingham, AL: The Alabama Chapter of American Academy of Pediatrics. Johnsen, E.P. & Christie, J.F. (1986). Pretend play and logical operations. In K. Blanchard (Ed.). The many faces of play (pp. 50-58). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Parten, M. (1932). Social participation among preschool children.Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27, 243-269. Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Rogers, C. & Sawyers, J. (1988). Play in the lives of children. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Scales, B.; Almy, M.; Nicolopulou, A.; & Ervin-Tripp, S. (1991). Defending play in the lives of children. In B. Scales ; M. Almy ; A. Nicolopulou ; & S. Ervin-Tripp (Eds.). Play and the social context of development in early care and education, (pp. 15-31). New York: Teachers' College, Columbia University. Smilansky, S. (1968). The effects of sociodramatic play on disadvantaged preschool children. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Torelli, L. & Durrett, C. (1996). Landscape for learning: The impact of classroom design on infants and toddlers. Earlychildhood NEWS, 8 (2), 12-17. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. (1991). A handbook for public playground safety. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Vandenberg, B. (1986). Play theory. In G. Fein & M. Rivkin, (Eds.),The young child at play, (pp. 17-22). Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Free play for children

On August 1, 1966, the day psychiatrist Stuart Brown started his assistant professorship at the Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, 25-year-old Charles Whitman climbed to the top of the University of Texas Tower on the Austin campus and shot 46 people. Whitman, an engineering student and a former U.S. Marine sharpshooter, was the last person anyone expected to go on a killing spree. After Brown was assigned as the state’s consulting psychiatrist to investigate the incident and later, when he interviewed 26 convicted Texas murderers for a small pilot study, he discovered that most of the killers, including Whitman, shared two things in common: they were from abusive families, and they never played as kids.

Brown did not know which factor was more important. But in the 42 years since, he has interviewed some 6,000 people about their childhoods, and his data suggest that a lack of opportunities for unstructured, imaginative play can keep children from growing into happy, well-adjusted adults. “Free play,” as scientists call it, is critical for becoming socially adept, coping with stressand building cognitive skills such as problem solving. Research into animal behavior confirms play’s benefits and establishes its evolutionary importance: ultimately, play may provide animals (including humans) with skills that will help them survive and reproduce.

This article is referred from 

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-serious-need-for-play

Useful link related to this topic (free play)

http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v5n1/sandberg.html

   

Education: Music Therapy and Language

Written by Myra J. Staum, Ph.D., RMT-BC
Director and Professor of Music Therapy
Willamette University, Salem, Oregon

Music Therapy is the unique application of music to enhance personal lives by creating positive changes in human behavior. It is an allied health profession utilizing music as a tool to encourage development in social/ emotional, cognitive/learning, and perceptual-motor areas. Music Therapy has a wide variety of functions with the exceptional child, adolescent and adult in medical, institutional and educational settings. Music is effective because it is a nonverbal form of communication, it is a natural reinforcer, it is immediate in time and provides motivation for practicing nonmusical skills. Most importantly, it is a successful medium because almost everyone responds positively to at least some kind of music.

The training of a music therapist involves a full curriculum of music classes, along with selected courses in psychology, special education, and anatomy with specific core courses and field experiences in music therapy. Following coursework, students complete a six-month full time clinical internship and a written board certification exam. Registered, board certified professionals must then maintain continuing education credits or retake the exam to remain current in their practice.

Music Therapy is particularly useful with autistic children owing in part to the nonverbal, non threatening nature of the medium. Parallel music activities are designed to support the objectives of the child as observed by the therapist or as indicated by a parent, teacher or other professional. A music therapist might observe, for instance, the child's need to socially interact with others. Musical games like passing a ball back and forth to music or playing sticks and cymbals with another person might be used to foster this interaction. Eye contact might be encouraged with imitative clapping games near the eyes or with activities which focus attention on an instrument played near the face. Preferred music may be used contingently for a wide variety of cooperative social behaviors like sitting in a chair or staying with a group of other children in a circle.

Music Therapy is particularly effective in the development and remediation of speech. The severe deficit in communication observed among autistic children includes expressive speech which may be nonexistent or impersonal. Speech can range from complete mutism to grunts, cries, explosive shrieks, guttural sounds, and humming. There may be musically intoned vocalizations with some consonant-vowel combinations, a sophisticated babbling interspersed with vaguely recognizable word-like sounds, or a seemingly foreign sounding jargon. Higher level autistic speech may involve echolalia, delayed echolalia or pronominal reversal, while some children may progress to appropriate phrases, sentences, and longer sentences with non expressive or monotonic speech. Since autistic children are often mainstreamed into music classes in the public schools, a music teacher may experience the rewards of having an autistic child involved in music activities while assisting with language.

It has been noted time and again that autistic children evidence unusual sensitivities to music. Some have perfect pitch, while many have been noted to play instruments with exceptional musicality. Music therapists traditionally work with autistic children because of this unusual responsiveness which is adaptable to non-music goals Some children have unusual sensitivities only to certain sounds. One boy, after playing a xylophone bar, would spontaneously sing up the harmonic series from the fundamental pitch. Through careful structuring, syllable sounds were paired with his singing of the harmonics and the boy began incorporating consonant-vowel sounds into his vocal play. Soon simple 2-3 note tunes were played on the xylophone by the therapist who modeled more complex verbalizations, and the child gradually began imitating them.

Since autistic children sometimes sing when they may not speak, music therapists and music educators can work systematically on speech through vocal music activities. In the music classroom, songs with simple words, repetitive phrases, and even repetitive nonsense syllables can assist the autistic child's language. Meaningful word phrases and songs presented with visual and tactile cues can facilitate this process even further. One six-year old echolalic child was taught speech by having the therapist/teacher sing simple question/answer phrases set to a familiar melody with full rhythmic and harmonic accompaniment The child held the objects while singing:

Do you eat an apple? Yes, yes.
Do you eat an apple? Yes, yes.
Do you eat an apple? Yes, yes.
Yes, yes, yes.

and

Do you eat a pencil? No, no.
Do you eat a pencil? No, no.
Do you eat a pencil? No, no.
No, no, no.

Another autistic child learned noun and action verb phrases . A large doll was manipulated by the therapist/teacher and a song presented:

This is a doll.
This is a doll.
The doll is jumping.
The doll is jumping.
This is a doll.
This is a doll.

Later, words were substituted for walking, sitting, sleeping, etc. In these songs, the bold words were faded out gradually by the therapist/teacher. Since each phrase was repeated, the child could use his echolalic imitation to respond accurately. When the music was eliminated completely, the child was able to verbalize the entire sentence in response to the questions, "What is this?" and "What is the doll doing?"

Other autistic children have learned entire meaningful responses when both questions and answers were incorporated into a song. The following phrases were sung with one child to the approximate tune of Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star and words were faded out gradually in backward progression. While attention to environmental sounds was the primary focus for this child, the song structure assisted her in responding in a full, grammatically correct sentence:

Listen, listen, what do you hear? (sound played on tape)
I hear an ambulance.

(I hear a baby cry.)
(I hear my mother calling, etc.)

Autistic children have also made enormous strides in eliminating their monotonic speech by singing songs composed to match the rhythm, stress, flow and inflection of the sentence followed by a gradual fading of the musical cues. Parents and teachers alike can assist the child in remembering these prosodic features of speech by prompting the child with the song.

While composing specialized songs is time consuming for the teacher with a classroom full of other children, it should be remembered that the repertoire of elementary songs are generally repetitive in nature. Even in higher level elementary vocal method books, repetition of simple phrases is common. While the words in such books may not seem critical for the autistic child's survival at the moment, simply increasing the capacity to put words together is a vitally important beginning for these children.

For those teachers whose time is limited to large groups, almost all singing experiences are invaluable to the autistic child when songs are presented slowly, clearly, and with careful focusing of the child's attention to the ongoing activity. To hear an autistic child leave a class quietly singing a song with all the words is a pleasant occurrence. To hear the same child attempt to use these words in conversation outside of the music class is to have made a very special contribution to the language potential of this child.

For more information about music therapy, contact the National Association for Music Therapy, 8455 Colesville Road, Suite 930, Silver Spring, MD 20910, U.S.A.

Music: A Natural Connection to Children's Growth and Development

What do grocery stores, hotels, restaurants, places of worship, shopping malls, and automated phone systems have in common? It's music. When you're out and about, almost wherever you go, you will hear some sort of music. It affects how you feel, helps you to relax, or makes you want to move and dance.
Music is a part of life in every country and every culture. Music is used as part of our celebrations, holidays, religious or worship experiences, as well as for pure entertainment. Although no one can quite explain the reason why music has such an important role in our every day lives, it does. Music inspires, soothes, excites, and bonds people of all ages and from all walks of life.
When a baby is born, somehow we know to cradle and sing to him or simply hum a melody while rocking him to sleep. What is a natural instinct for parents to surround their new infant with music and song is also a natural way to start building the brain's connections to growth and learning. Music affects and works on all levels of development: social, emotional, physical, and cognitive growth.

Music and Social Interaction

Music is a natural connection tool. It brings people together and helps them interact with one another. It is part of many social events. How many parties, weddings, or receptions have you attended that didn't have music?
The same sort of connection can happen between you and your child. Play music and you'll see children respond. Children will sway, swing, move, bang out a rhythm on a table, and bob their heads. Music is an easy way for parents to relate to their children. When an infant hears you sing to them, you are connecting with them, and they are connecting to you. It doesn't matter what the song is, just sing. It is making a difference.

Music and Emotional Development

Music is associated with our earliest memories, and experiences throughout our lives. It definitely has an emotional impact. Think of a song or piece of music that stirs up strong emotions every time you hear it. Almost no one is unaffected by its power on our moods.
Music has the ability to comfort and soothe children. Children will often sing to themselves as a way to self-soothe. You can use music to help calm your baby, or get your toddler to relax for naptime. If your preschooler is sleepy in the morning or sad, you can sing a song or play music that is cheery and makes them want to jump around and get moving.

Music and Physical Development

You can't dance without music, right? Well, you can, but music makes it much more fun. Music and movement naturally go together. Children most naturally respond to music by moving and being active with it. Music helps children learn about rhythm, timing, orientation, and coordination. You can use music to get children marching, jumping, and hopping, or during any kind of physical activity.
In addition to being fun for children, The "Hokey Pokey" dance, line dancing, square dancing and all group dances help children learn: their body parts (put your right foot in, raise your hands), sense of direction (turning around, going left and right, moving back and forth), or rhythm patterns (tapping to the beat).

Music and Cognitive Development

Toddlers and preschoolers love rhymes and songs. Not only do they enjoy them, but they help children learn about numbers, letters, and sounds ("ABC song", "This Old Man"). As children's brains are developing at their fastest when they are very young, with 80 percent of brain development occurring by age 3, and 90 percent by age 5, music helps with making connections in the brain.
Although there is some controversy on exactly how much music affects children's learning abilities, it is known that music is linked to improved math, memory and reading skills. When children are creative and make up their own rhymes and songs, they are also building their knowledge of words and sounds. They are building the connections in the brain. It doesn't matter what kind of music they hear or create, all music matters.

Incorporate Music into Learning Activities

When you are interested, you will learn. Children enjoy music. Incorporating music into activities at home and in child care can help make learning enjoyable and therefore easier for children.
Many child care programs already know that music is a great way to help children prepare for transitions from one activity to another. For example, there's the "Clean Up" song that can be sung to tell children to clean up behind themselves, put their toys away. You can have a song for brushing your teeth or taking a bath that children will associate with that activity. Children love routine and making songs or music part of routines makes activities and learning fun.
Child care programs can ask children to bring in and share their favorite instruments and let the entire group play as a 'band'. Homemade instruments can be made as well, using pots, pans, lids, maracas made out of cups and beans.
For older children, you might consider letting them learn to play a musical instrument. Playing in a band or orchestra helps children with social and emotional development. Learning an instrument like the recorder or violin helps with hand-eye coordination. Reading music helps children think differently. Most schools have programs where children can experiment with different instruments for a low cost.
Children love to hear themselves. Record your child singing and play it back for her. Or with a group of children, record each child singing a part of a song and play it back and have the children figure out who is singing which part. This will help improve their listening skills.
Music is an important part of the human experience. It is also a very creative medium. It allows for children to be able to express themselves in their own unique ways as well as contribute to their overall development. Find ways to expand how you use music with your children at home and in child care. There is no better way to learn and have fun at the same time.

Further reading : http://ccaapps.childcareaware.org/en/subscriptions/dailyparent/volume.php?id=46
http://childdevelopmentblog.info/music-is-important-part-of-child-development/